HERBS AND SPICES
Before learning about the history of herbs and spices, it is necessary to define these terms. Herbs are the fresh and dried leaves generally of temperate plants and are usually green in color. In Pennsylvania, we live in a temperate climate characterized by summers and winters of similar length. Spices are the flowers, fruit, seeds, bark, and roots typically of tropical plants and range from brown to black to red in color. In general, spices have a more pungent flavor than herbs. It is possible for one plant to provide an herb and a spice. For example, for the plant Coriandrum sativum, the leaves are used as the herb cilantro while the seed is used as the spice coriander.
Spice Trade
The Ebers Papyrus is an Egyptian scroll listing plants used as medicines, which dates back to about 1550 B.C. Some spices listed are anise, mustard, saffron, cinnamon, and cassia. Cinnamon and cassia are native to southeastern Asia and China, not Egypt. The scroll serves as evidence that the spice trade was in existence at least 3,500 years ago.
Starting around 950 B.C., Arab merchants caravanned by donkeys and camels through India, China, and southeastern Asia on the Incense Route to provide valuable spices to the Greeks. When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 80 B.C., he established Alexandria as a port used in the spice trade for centuries. Early Romans expanded the use of spices in foods, medicines, and indulgent items such as lotions and perfumes. During these times, large amounts of gold and silver were traded for spices. After the first century, Rome established a direct trade with India via the Red Sea, and effectively broke the Arab monopoly on the spice trade.
Romans then introduced spices throughout Europe, where they became very popular. When the Goths, a tribe living on the Danube River in Europe, overtook Rome in 410, they demanded and received gold, silver, silks, other valuables, and 3,000 pounds of pepper as ransom to spare Roman lives. Trade between Europe and eastern Asia nearly disappeared for 400 years after the fall of Rome in 476, but was later revived in part due to the publishing of Marco Polo’s memoirs in the late 13th century. In his memoirs, Polo described his travels to the Orient and the spices grown there. Europeans then began searching for water routes to the Orient.
Beginning around the 14th century, ocean exploration advanced, and sea routes from Europe to eastern Asia were discovered. In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World while searching for a shorter water route to find black pepper and cinnamon. From 1519 to 1522, Spain discovered a water route to the Spice Islands (the Moluccas, near Indonesia) where cloves, nutmeg, mace, and pepper were produced. Those who controlled the spice trade got rich, as prices were very high. By the early 1800s, spice plantations were established in other locations around the world ending the spice trade cartel forever. The United States entered the spice trade, as it now exists, in the late 1800s and is the largest spice importer and consumer in the world. From 1990 to 1994, an average of 530 million pounds valued at $372 million were imported into the United States.
Herbal History
The use of plants as herbs has been important to all cultures since long before history was recorded. Hundreds of tribal cultures have used wild and cultivated herbs for medicinal and food purposes for thousands of years. Herbs are mentioned in Genesis, the first chapter of the Bible, and throughout its text. As civilizations developed so did the knowledge for the use of herbs.
The study of herbs is well-documented. Evidence of early herb gardens dates to Europe in the Middle Ages. Egyptian schools of herbalists have existed since 3000 B.C. Scholars were interested in herbs medicine, cosmetics, cooking, history, and folklore. Most herbs are symbolic. For example, borage (Borago officinalis) was given to those who needed courage, while rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) was given to others for remembrance. In the past, herbs were only available during the warm months of the growing season, and at other times consumers had to purchase dried herbs. Today, the business of producing fresh herbs for consumption has become one of the fastest growing industries in agriculture. The United States produces about 200 billion pounds of herbs and spices per year.
SPICES
ALLSPICE is the hard berry of an evergreen tree native to the West Indies and Central America. Its name quite possibly reflects its flavor, which as a hint of the flavors of several spices, including cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. It is most commonly sold in ground form, though the whole berry is available in spice shops and is used in pickling and to flavor broths and marinades. The mildly spicy-sweet flavor of ground allspice enhances apple desserts, banana breads, spice cakes, cookies, chutneys, and recipes utilizing squash, pumpkin, or sweet potatoes.
CARAWAY SEEDS, the seeds of a biennial plant native to Europe, have a sharp, distinctive taste that puts them in the category of flavorings that are either loved or intensely disliked. They are best known for adding zest to rye and pumpernickel breads; try expanding their use to flavor recipes emphasizing potatoes or other root vegetables (such as parsnips or turnips) as well as cabbage varieties.
CARDAMOM, derived from a plant native to India, is available in whole or ground form. Bought whole, the seed pods must be opened, revealing several small, dark seeds. These aromatic seeds have a flavor that is hard to describe, but is appropriate for both sweet and savory dishes. The whole seeds lend an aromatic quality to grain dishes, especially fruit-and-nut grain pilafs as well as curries containing potatoes or peas. In ground form, cardamom may be used in the same sort of baked goods in which you’d use allspice—squash, pumpkin, or sweet-potato pies, for example, or batter breads. It may also be used to season those same vegetables when they are served as side dishes.
CAYENNE PEPPER is perhaps the hottest of ground spices, ground and dried from a very hot variety of a pepper of the capsicum genus. A small amount goes a long way and is used to give fiery flavor to Mexican, Indian, and some Southeast Asian cuisines and is also useful in spicing Creole and Cajun specialties. Cayenne pepper lends itself to vegetable or bean stews, curries, chilies, spicy cold noodle dishes, and hot-and-sour dishes.
CHILI POWDER is a blend of spices with dried, ground red chili pepper as its base. The blends available in Spanish groceries, spice shops, and natural-food stores will be more robust and aromatic than those bought in supermarkets; you will also be able to choose from among milder and hotter varieties. The consistent ingredients, along with chili pepper, often include cumin, oregano, and garlic, but may also contain salt and other seasonings as well. Use chili powder to flavor bean stews and soups. It’s a logical addition to tomato-based enchilada sauces, but try adding it to a tomato-based pasta sauces as well to add a warm note. Chili powder is good in some Oriental-style sauces such as peanut or sesame sauce for noodles.
CINNAMON is derived from the dried inner bark of the cassia tree, a small evergreen. One of the earliest spices recorded, cinnamon is also one of the most familiar and commonly used. A sweet, aromatic spice, cinnamon is often a component of curry blends and is a fixture in many baked goods, including custards, puddings, cakes, cookies, and fruit pies. Squash, pumpkin and sweet potatoes, whether in pies or as side dishes, always benefit from a sprinkling of cinnamon. Whole cinnamon sticks are nice to add to stewing fruits and simmering beverages, such as hot mulled cider.
CLOVES are a pleasant, sweet spice like cinnamon, but have a stronger flavor and a sharp aroma. Whole cloves are the buds of the evergreen clove tree. Stewed fruits benefit from a handful of whole cloves while they are simmering, and fragrant pilafs are made even more so by addition of some whole cloves. You may leave the cloves in the dishes you are making, but you may not enjoy biting into one, since the flavor is somewhat bitter. Ground cloves are often used in conjunction with cinnamon in baked goods, fruit pies, and squash, sweet-potato, and pumpkin recipes. Cloves enhance the flavors of apples and bananas in desserts and are occasionally used in curries and chutneys.
CUMIN is the golden-brown seed of a small herbal plant native to the Mediterranean, Middle East, and North Africa. Cumin’s spicy and pleasantly hot flavor makes it a favorite seasoning in several ethnic cuisines; its zesty quality reduces the need for salt. You will find cumin used extensively in curry blends and chili powder; in those spice mixes or on its own, it is an important seasoning in Indian and Mexican cuisines. Cumin is also frequently used in Middle Eastern and Spanish cookery. Use cumin in soups, tomato-based enchilada sauces, bean dishes, and vegetable stews. Spinach, lentil, and tempeh recipes often benefit from the addition of cumin. A pinch of cumin in breads is an old European tradition, and this works particularly well in cornbread.
CURRY POWDER is a blend of spices used in Indian cuisine with some constant ingredients and some that vary. Indian specialty-food stores and spice shops are good places to get fresh, aromatic curry blends with a choice of varying degrees of hotness. The supermarket variety often tastes and smells rather flat. The most notable and constant elements of curry powders are cumin, coriander, and turmeric; the variables may be any of cayenne pepper, mustard, fenugreek, along with some sweet aromatics such as cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, or cardamon. Almost any good Indian cookbook will give several variations of curry spice blends, which may be made at home by grinding whole spices or, even simpler, by combining good, fresh ground spices. Aside from its obvious use in simplified Indian curry recipes (authentic Indian dishes usually combine individual curry spices in the recipe rather than using prepared curry powder), use curry powder to add zest and color to simple grain pilafs, lentil soups and stews, potato dishes, and egg recipes such as quiches or frittatas.
FENNEL SEED is a small, elongated seed that, used whole or ground, imparts a subtle anise or licorice flavor. Fennel seeds are used in some traditional Italian bread recipes and stews. In Indian cookery, they add a pleasant flavor and aroma to grain pilafs and curries. A few fennel seeds tossed into fresh fruit salads add an offbeat twist. Try green beans or root vegetables such as parsnips with a hint of the whole or ground seeds.
FENUGREEK is a less common aromatic spice and is actually a legume, something like a mung bean. Its somewhat bitter flavor and strong aroma warrant subtle application. Fenugreek appears as an element of Indian curries and chutneys and is used as a pickling spice in the Far East.
FIVE-SPICE POWDER, a blend of spices used in Oriental cookery, is increasingly available in natural-food stores as well as in spice shops and Oriental groceries. The same five spices are not always used, but some of the most common components are anise, fennel, cloves, black pepper, cinnamon, and ginger. The overall effect is sweet and slightly spicy, with a licorice undertone, since either anise or fennel is always present. Five-spice powder, subtly used, is a nice addition to grilling sauces, black bean sauce, and miso sauces.
GARLIC is well known and almost universally loved by good cooks across many cultures. A member of the lily family and related to onions, shallots, and the like, garlic has long been esteemed equally for its medicinal properties and its culinary qualities. The uses of garlic are familiar and too numerous to list. It appears extensively in the cuisines of Italy, India, Mexico, the Orient, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and many more. Fresh garlic is almost always preferable, but garlic powder is an acceptable substitute in breading mixes for frying foods or in blended dips, where the flavor of raw garlic may be too strong.
GINGER is the underground rhizome-like root of a tropical plant. There’s much to say about fresh ginger, so it is under a separate entry. Ground ginger should generally not be considered a substitute for fresh ginger, but rather a hot-sweet, fragrant spice more appropriate to baked goods. Gingerbread is one that comes to mind immediately, but it is almost as common as spice for pumpkin and squash pies. Ground ginger is also a pleasing enhancement for apple desserts, as well as for sweet-potato or winter-squash side dishes.
GINSENG is the name of a root whose shape often resembles the human figure. Though it is not a culinary herb in the strict sense, it is included here for definition. Ginseng’s presumed medicinal powers have been widely publicized. Ginseng is frequently marketed as a universal tonic for well-being, a general panacea for numerous ailments, and for its supposed powers as an aphrodisiac. No conclusive proof is available for its claims, but the commercial value of ginseng continues to grow. It has been brought under cultivation both in Asia (particularly in Korea) and in North America. Ginseng is now being incorporated into soft drinks marketed by natural-food companies and is also available in the form of liquids and powders (to be used in beverages or as tea) as well as in capsule form to be taken as a supplement.
MACE, the filigreed, red encasement surrounding the nutmeg kernel, is dried and ground for use as a spice. The flavor is similar to that of nutmeg, but milder. Like nutmeg, a little mace goes a long way. Substitute mace for nutmeg wherever you wish (see nutmeg entry for suggestions).
MUSTARD is the tiny, round seed of an annual plant native to Asia and is the spice used to make the popular condiment of the same name. Available in whole or ground form, the flavor of mustard seeds is subtly hot and slightly biting. Use dry mustard in soups, salad dressings, grain dishes, potato dishes, chilies, and curries.
NUTMEG is the seed of the small pear-shaped fruit of the nutmeg tree. The hard, nutlike nutmeg seed is optimally used freshly grated, however, the spice is more commonly sold and used in its dried, ground form. A sweet spice, nutmeg is a familiar flavoring in eggnog, custards, pumpkin and sweet-potato pies, and spice cakes. It is often one of the spices used in curry mixes, and has a special affinity with winter squashes and spinach.
PAPRIKA is ground from a dried, sweet Capsicum pepper. Its slightly sweet, warm flavor adds savor to tomato-based sauces, pastas, French-style salad dressing, and potato dishes. Its bright red color makes it an excellent garnish sprinkled on casseroles, vegetable pies, dips, and pâtés.
PEPPERCORNS are the whole, dried berries of an evergreen vine. Pepper is the second most commonly used seasoning after salt, not surprisingly, so its uses are too numerous, and too obvious, to enumerate here. It is worth noting, however, that it’s preferable to buy whole black or white peppercorns and grind them as needed than to buy pre-ground pepper. The difference in aroma and flavor is appreciable.
POPPY SEEDS are the tiny, round seeds of the beautiful and notorious opium poppy flower. The seeds contain none of the drug, but are thought to have a slightly calming effect. Poppy seeds come in colors ranging from white to gray to black, but the best ones are the darkest. Their nutty flavor makes them a special addition to spice cakes and seed cakes and an excellent topping for breads and rolls. In addition, poppy seeds are a nice seasoning for noodle dishes, cabbage dishes, casseroles, and dishes utilizing root vegetables such as parsnips.
RED PEPPER FLAKES come from the fruit of a pungent, fiery member of the Capsicum genus. Combining the seeds with the dried flesh of the pepper, this extremely hot spice is used in some of the incendiary dishes of India, Southeast Asia, Mexico, and in Cajun recipes from Louisiana. Even ¼ teaspoon added to an average recipe will yield quite a nippy result.
SAFFRON, by far the most expensive of all spices, is derived from the dried, brilliant-yellow stigma of the autumn crocus. It lends its color to any food it touches; its flavor, on the other hand, is delicate. Saffron is primarily used in rice dishes, such as fruit-and-nut pilafs or the Spanish classic arroz con pollo, and is also utilized in some French and Middle and Far Eastern cookery and sometimes, but less commonly, in Indian cuisine. A common substitute for saffron is turmeric.
SAVORY comes in summer and winter varieties that may be used interchangeably. Summer savory, an annual plant, is more widely available and has a milder, sweeter flavor than the perennial winter savory. Savory is a useful seasoning that imparts a subtle flavor that tastes like a cross between parsley and thyme. Use it wherever a mixture of dried herbs is called for (in salad dressings, herb breads, soups, and sauces) or as a milder substitute for thyme, oregano, or marjoram. Savory is known traditionally as the bean herb, because its flavor is thought to have a special affinity with most beans. Try it in bean soups and stews.
TURMERIC is the product of a dried, ground, fleshy root and is prized for its brilliant yellow color, much as is saffron, although turmeric is not nearly so expensive. This spice has a unique, rather “woodsy” flavor and scent and is almost invariably one of the main components of curry mixes. Use it to brighten rice pilafs, curries, corn dishes, pickles, and relishes.
HERBS
BASIL is one of the most relished of herbs and one that has an important place in herbal lore and legend, spanning many ages and cultures. In the summer, the intoxicating scent of fresh sweet basil fills produce markets, and its brief season should be fully enjoyed. Though basil makes an excellent dried herb whose sweet-and-spicy flavor is welcome in many dishes, the result is very different when using it fresh. Fresh basil is the main component of pesto sauces and has a special affinity with tomato-based pasta sauces and fresh tomato salads (as in the classic tomato, mozzarella, and basil salad). Dried basil is good in soups, marinades and vinaigrettes, grain dishes, herb breads, and omelets. It may also be used to flavor tomato sauces when fresh basil is unavailable.
BAY LEAVES are the whole, dried leaves of the bay laurel tree and are most useful in long-simmering recipes, such as soups and stews, where their flavor has a chance to permeate. Its warm, somewhat “woodsy” character lends itself especially well to recipes that contain tomatoes, beans, corn, and potatoes.
CHIVES are a member of the lily family, whose relatives include onions, scallions, and garlic. Fresh chives are rarely seen in produce markets, but are easily grown in the kitchen garden—in fact, they proliferate like mad. Dried chives are commonly available, on the other hand. The flavor of chives is very much akin to that of scallions, yet more delicate, which makes them delightful to use raw when available fresh. Fresh chives add flavor to baked potatoes, potato salads, and in fact, most any fresh vegetable salad. Use dried chives in dips, dressings, soups, and sauces, where they will have a chance to reconstitute.
CILANTRO is an herb that is never available in dried form, since its pungent flavor and aroma seem to dissipate almost entirely when dried. Sometimes referred to as Spanish or Chinese parsley, this is the same herb whose seeds are the spice coriander. Fresh cilantro is becoming more widely available in produce markets. Italian parsley is often recommended as a substitute for cilantro, although the effect is not the same at all. Cilantro has a unique flavor and aroma that some savor and others dislike. It is used widely in Mexican, Indian and Asian cuisines. Cilantro adds an unusual zest to pinto bean stews, Spanish-style tomato sauces for enchiladas, tacos and the like, curried vegetable stews, and corn dishes such as corn-stuffed peppers.
CORIANDER is the aromatic seed of the herbal plant whose leaves are known as cilantro. This is a spice whose complex flavor falls somewhere between sweet and spicy. It’s usually one of the three main components of curry mixes along with cumin and turmeric. In Indonesian cookery, coriander is a common seasoning for tempeh recipes. In general, it’s an excellent flavoring for bean dishes of many sorts. Corn and cabbage recipes as well as vegetable relishes and hot-sweet chutneys are enhanced by the flavor of coriander.
MARJORAM is an herb so closely related to oregano that the two share the botanical name origanum, which is from the Latin meaning “joy of the mountain.” Marjoram is slightly sweeter, yet somewhat sharper than oregano, so inasmuch as the two may be used interchangeably, marjoram should be used sparingly. Use marjoram in conjunction with other dried herbs to flavor vegetable dishes, Italian-style tomato sauces, bean stews, pizza sauces, soups, grain dishes, and vinaigrette salad dressings.
MINT is the general term used for a variety of highly aromatic herbs, the most common of which, for culinary purposes, are peppermint and spearmint. The fresh scent and menthol flavor of the mints are delightful, and they are popular and prolific kitchen-garden herbs. In Indian cuisine, fresh mint is commonly used in chutneys and in the palate-cooling relishes known as raitas, to add a refreshing note. Fresh mint is also a standard ingredient in the popular Middle Eastern tabouli. In a pinch, use dried mint as a substitute for fresh in such recipes, but the effect will not be the same. There is no substitute for fresh mint in beverages or as a garnish for fresh strawberries or melons, fruit salads, and chocolate puddings.
OREGANO, a close botanical relation to marjoram, has become familiar to the North America palate through its use in popular Italian dishes such a pizza and spaghetti sauces. Oregano is a splendid kitchen-garden herb. Used fresh, it is especially nice in green salads and tomato salads. In dried form, it is a widely available, inexpensive herb useful in traditional Mexican, Italian, Greek, and Spanish recipes. It’s also a common addition to salad dressings and does much to enhance the flavor of soups, grains, bean dishes, and pasta sauces.
PARSLEY is a commonly used fresh herb that just doesn’t translate well into dried form. Fortunately, fresh parsley is easy to grow on the windowsill and is also available inexpensively year-round, so there is little reason to buy this nutritious herb in dried form. The fresh, mild herbal flavor of parsley is welcome in many culinary categories, including salads and salad dressings, soups, grain and bean dishes, casseroles, omelets, vegetable dishes, and herb breads. When buying parsley, choose the Italian, flat-leafed parsley for cooking, since it’s more flavorful, and reserve the use of the curly-leafed parsley for garnishing.
ROSEMARY is the slender leaves of a small evergreen shrub and has a well-known legacy in folklore as the herb of remembrance. You’ll certainly remember rosemary if you don’t use it sparingly, since its strong, piney flavor can be overwhelming. Rosemary is traditionally used to season lamb, chicken, and stuffing. In the vegetarian realm, it may be used to flavor vegetable stews, herb breads, and tomato soups or sauces.
SAVORY comes in summer and winter varieties that may be used interchangeably. Summer savory, an annual plant, is more widely available and has a milder, sweeter flavor than the perennial winter savory. Savory is a useful seasoning that imparts a subtle flavor that tastes like a cross between parsley and thyme. Use it wherever a mixture of dried herbs is called for (in salad dressings, herb breads, soups, and sauces) or as a milder substitute for thyme, oregano, or marjoram. Savory is known traditionally as the bean herb, because its flavor is thought to have a special affinity with most beans. Try it in bean soups and stews.
TARRAGON is an expensive herb best known for its role in making an elegant vinegar. It has a sharp-sweet, anise-like flavor and scent. Tarragon adds a distinctive touch to fresh green vegetables and green salads. Try sprinkling some on fresh peas, green beans, asparagus, or Swiss chard. Tarragon makes ordinary mayonnaise special and adds an unusual touch to omelets and tomato dishes. Tarragon is also used in the preparation of fish and chicken.
THYME is a popular herb related to the mints. Even when used sparingly, it imparts a vivid flavor and aroma. Thyme is an important seasoning in classic French and Creole recipes and is good used whenever a mixture of dried herbs is called for. Soups, vinaigrettes, grain and bean dishes, corn dishes, and tomato sauces all benefit from the distinctive flavor of thyme.
DILL WEED and DILL SEED are both products of a tall, feathery annual plant that is a favorite kitchen-garden herb. The seeds, less commonly used than the leaves, are used in pickling and may also be used as a milder substitute for caraway seeds in breads or as a topping for potato, cabbage, and casseroles. Fresh dill is available for a few months out of the year, but may be hard to come by during the colder months. Dried dill is a fairly good standby for fresh when necessary. Fresh or dried, dill has a special affinity with tomatoes and cucumbers. Few summer salads are more simple or more refreshing then sliced cucumbers with coconut yogurt and chopped dill. Fresh or dried, dill is an excellent herb in hot and cold soups and is an offbeat addition to omelets. Use dill in spinach pies and herb breads as well.
SOURCES :
http://extension.psu.edu/plants/gardening/fact-sheets/herbs/herb-and-spice-history
http://www.mccormickscienceinstitute.com/resources/history-of-spices
http://www.vegkitchen.com/tips/herbs-and-spices-common-culinary/
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